Compare and Contrast Positivism and Interpretivism

Compare and Contrast Positivism and Interpretivism Positivism is a theoretical and methodological approach in contemporary criminology. Positivists believe that human behavior is shaped by biological, psychological or social factors and forces. These factors and forces are called individual pathology which deter the decision-making and control ability of an individual and results in behavioral problems (White Haines, 2003). To extend to legal definition, crime is defined as individual pathology to obey law and to conform to moral consensus of the society. Positivism approach in criminology examines the trait distinctions between offenders, rather than on the criminal acts as the focus of analysis. Also, positivism determines how these differences predispose a person towards criminality (White Haines, 2003). Positivists believed that these traits observed can be diagnosed and treated by dealing with and removing the factors and forces that cause the offending behavior to occur. In a positivist view of the world, science was seen as the way to get at truth, to understand the world well enough so that we might predict and control it. The world and the universe were deterministic they operated by laws of cause and effect that we could discern if we applied the unique approach of the scientific method. Science was largely a mechanistic or mechanical affair. We use deductive reasoning to postulate theories that we can test. Based on the results of our studies, we may learn that our theory doesnt fit the facts well and so we need to revise our theory to better predict reality. The positivist believed in empiricism the idea that observation and measurement was the core of the scientific endeavor. The key approach of the scientific method is the experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws through direct manipulation and observation. Paradigm of social research represent paradigm by following the idea of Thomas Kuhn who is the first thinker of paradigm that was showed in the book named structure of scientific revolutionsin 1962. In social science has two important paradigm that used for research society and event which happen in social that are positivism and interpretivism Critical Positivism Post-Positivism Lets start our very brief discussion of philosophy of science with a simple distinction between epistemology and methodology. The term epistemology comes from the Greek word epistà ªmà ª, their term for knowledge. In simple terms, epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge or of how we come to know. Methodology is also concerned with how we come to know, but is much more practical in nature. Methodology is focused on the specific ways the methods that we can use to try to understand our world better. Epistemology and methodology are intimately related: the former involves the philosophy of how we come to know the world and the latter involves the practice. When most people in our society think about science, they think about some guy in a white lab coat working at a lab bench mixing up chemicals. They think of science as boring, cut-and-dry, and they think of the scientist as narrow-minded and esoteric (the ultimate nerd think of the humorous but nonetheless mad scientist in the Back to the Future movies, for instance). A lot of our stereotypes about science come from a period where science was dominated by a particular philosophy positivism that tended to support some of these views. Here, I want to suggest (no matter what the movie industry may think) that science has moved on in its thinking into an era of post-positivism where many of those stereotypes of the scientist no longer hold up. Lets begin by considering what positivism is. In its broadest sense, positivism is a rejection of metaphysics (I leave it you to look up that term if youre not familiar with it). It is a position that holds that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience. The purpose of science is simply to stick to what we can observe and measure. Knowledge of anything beyond that, a positivist would hold, is impossible. When I think of positivism (and the related philosophy of logical positivism) I think of the behaviorists in mid-20th Century psychology. These were the mythical rat runners who believed that psychology could only study what could be directly observed and measured. Since we cant directly observe emotions, thoughts, etc. (although we may be able to measure some of the physical and physiological accompaniments), these were not legitimate topics for a scientific psychology. B.F. Skinner argued that psychology needed to concentrate only on the positive and negative reinforcers of behavior in order to predict how people will behave everything else in between (like what the person is thinking) is irrelevant because it cant be measured. In a positivist view of the world, science was seen as the way to get at truth, to understand the world well enough so that we might predict and control it. The world and the universe were deterministic they operated by laws of cause and effect that we could discern if we applied the unique approach of the scientific method. Science was largely a mechanistic or mechanical affair. We use deductive reasoning to postulate theories that we can test. Based on the results of our studies, we may learn that our theory doesnt fit the facts well and so we need to revise our theory to better predict reality. The positivist believed in empiricism the idea that observation and measurement was the core of the scientific endeavor. The key approach of the scientific method is the experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws through direct manipulation and observation. OK, I am exaggerating the positivist position (although you may be amazed at how close to this some of them actually came) in order to make a point. Things have changed in our views of science since the middle part of the 20th century. Probably the most important has been our shift away from positivism into what we term post-positivism. By post-positivism, I dont mean a slight adjustment to or revision of the positivist position post-positivism is a wholesale rejection of the central tenets of positivism. A post-positivist might begin by recognizing that the way scientists think and work and the way we think in our everyday life are not distinctly different. Scientific reasoning and common sense reasoning are essentially the same process. There is no difference in kind between the two, only a difference in degree. Scientists, for example, follow specific procedures to assure that observations are verifiable, accurate and consistent. In everyday reasoning, we dont always proceed so c arefully (although, if you think about it, when the stakes are high, even in everyday life we become much more cautious about measurement. Think of the way most responsible parents keep continuous watch over their infants, noticing details that non-parents would never detect). One of the most common forms of post-positivism is a philosophy called critical realism. A critical realist believes that there is a reality independent of our thinking about it that science can study. (This is in contrast with a subjectivist who would hold that there is no external reality were each making this all up!). Positivists were also realists. The difference is that the post-positivist critical realist recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable. In other words, the critical realist is critical of our ability to know reality with certainty. Where the positivist believed that the goal of science was to uncover the truth, the post-positivist critical realist believes that the goal of science is to hold steadfastly to the goal of getting it right about reality, even though we can never achieve that goal! Because all measurement is fallible, the post-positivist emphasizes the importance of multiple measures and observations, each of which may possess different types of error, and the need to use triangulation across these multiple errorful sources to try to get a better bead on whats happening in reality. The post-positivist also believes that all observations are theory-laden and that scientists (and everyone else, for that matter) are inherently biased by their cultural experiences, world views, and so on. This is not cause to give up in despair, however. Just because I have my world view based on my experiences and you have yours doesnt mean that we cant hope to translate from each others experiences or understand each other. That is, post-positivism rejects the relativist idea of the incommensurability of different perspectives, the idea that we can never understand each other because we come from different experiences and cultures. Most post-positivists are constructivists who believe that we each construct our view of the world based on our perceptions of it. Because perception and observation is falli ble, our constructions must be imperfect. So what is meant by objectivity in a post-positivist world? Positivists believed that objectivity was a characteristic that resided in the individual scientist. Scientists are responsible for putting aside their biases and beliefs and seeing the world as it really is. Post-positivists reject the idea that any individual can see the world perfectly as it really is. We are all biased and all of our observations are affected (theory-laden). Our best hope for achieving objectivity is to triangulate across multiple fallible perspectives! Thus, objectivity is not the characteristic of an individual, it is inherently a social phenomenon. It is what multiple individuals are trying to achieve when they criticize each others work. We never achieve objectivity perfectly, but we can approach it. The best way for us to improve the objectivity of what we do is to do it within the context of a broader contentious community of truth-seekers (including other scientists) who criticize each others work. The theories that survive such intense scrutiny are a bit like the species that survive in the evolutionary struggle. (This is sometimes called the natural selection theory of knowledge and holds that ideas have survival value and that knowledge evolves through a process of variation, selection and retention). They have adaptive value and are probably as close as our species can come to being objective and understanding reality. Clearly, all of this stuff is not for the faint-of-heart. Ive seen many a graduate student get lost in the maze of philosophical assumptions that contemporary philosophers of science argue about. And dont think that I believe this is not important stuff. But, in the end, I tend to turn pragmatist on these matters. Philosophers have been debating these issues for thousands of years and there is every reason to believe that they will continue to debate them for thousands of years more. Those of us who are practicing scientists should check in on this debate from time to time (perhaps every hundred years or so would be about right). We should think about the assumptions we make about the world when we conduct research. But in the meantime, we cant wait for the philosophers to settle the matter. After all, we do have our own work to do! Positivism Post-Positivism Lets start our very brief discussion of philosophy of science with a simple distinction between epistemology and methodology. The term epistemology comes from the Greek word epistà ªmà ª, their term for knowledge. In simple terms, epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge or of how we come to know. Methodology is also concerned with how we come to know, but is much more practical in nature. Methodology is focused on the specific ways the methods that we can use to try to understand our world better. Epistemology and methodology are intimately related: the former involves the philosophy of how we come to know the world and the latter involves the practice. When most people in our society think about science, they think about some guy in a white lab coat working at a lab bench mixing up chemicals. They think of science as boring, cut-and-dry, and they think of the scientist as narrow-minded and esoteric (the ultimate nerd think of the humorous but nonetheless mad scientist in the Back to the Future movies, for instance). A lot of our stereotypes about science come from a period where science was dominated by a particular philosophy positivism that tended to support some of these views. Here, I want to suggest (no matter what the movie industry may think) that science has moved on in its thinking into an era of post-positivism where many of those stereotypes of the scientist no longer hold up. Lets begin by considering what positivism is. In its broadest sense, positivism is a rejection of metaphysics (I leave it you to look up that term if youre not familiar with it). It is a position that holds that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience. The purpose of science is simply to stick to what we can observe and measure. Knowledge of anything beyond that, a positivist would hold, is impossible. When I think of positivism (and the related philosophy of logical positivism) I think of the behaviorists in mid-20th Century psychology. These were the mythical rat runners who believed that psychology could only study what could be directly observed and measured. Since we cant directly observe emotions, thoughts, etc. (although we may be able to measure some of the physical and physiological accompaniments), these were not legitimate topics for a scientific psychology. B.F. Skinner argued that psychology needed to concentrate only on the positive and negative reinforcers of behavior in order to predict how people will behave everything else in between (like what the person is thinking) is irrelevant because it cant be measured. In a positivist view of the world, science was seen as the way to get at truth, to understand the world well enough so that we might predict and control it. The world and the universe were deterministic they operated by laws of cause and effect that we could discern if we applied the unique approach of the scientific method. Science was largely a mechanistic or mechanical affair. We use deductive reasoning to postulate theories that we can test. Based on the results of our studies, we may learn that our theory doesnt fit the facts well and so we need to revise our theory to better predict reality. The positivist believed in empiricism the idea that observation and measurement was the core of the scientific endeavor. The key approach of the scientific method is the experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws through direct manipulation and observation. OK, I am exaggerating the positivist position (although you may be amazed at how close to this some of them actually came) in order to make a point. Things have changed in our views of science since the middle part of the 20th century. Probably the most important has been our shift away from positivism into what we term post-positivism. By post-positivism, I dont mean a slight adjustment to or revision of the positivist position post-positivism is a wholesale rejection of the central tenets of positivism. A post-positivist might begin by recognizing that the way scientists think and work and the way we think in our everyday life are not distinctly different. Scientific reasoning and common sense reasoning are essentially the same process. There is no difference in kind between the two, only a difference in degree. Scientists, for example, follow specific procedures to assure that observations are verifiable, accurate and consistent. In everyday reasoning, we dont always proceed so c arefully (although, if you think about it, when the stakes are high, even in everyday life we become much more cautious about measurement. Think of the way most responsible parents keep continuous watch over their infants, noticing details that non-parents would never detect). One of the most common forms of post-positivism is a philosophy called critical realism. A critical realist believes that there is a reality independent of our thinking about it that science can study. (This is in contrast with a subjectivist who would hold that there is no external reality were each making this all up!). Positivists were also realists. The difference is that the post-positivist critical realist recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable. In other words, the critical realist is critical of our ability to know reality with certainty. Where the positivist believed that the goal of science was to uncover the truth, the post-positivist critical realist believes that the goal of science is to hold steadfastly to the goal of getting it right about reality, even though we can never achieve that goal! Because all measurement is fallible, the post-positivist emphasizes the importance of multiple measures and observations, each of which may possess different types of error, and the need to use triangulation across these multiple errorful sources to try to get a better bead on whats happening in reality. The post-positivist also believes that all observations are theory-laden and that scientists (and everyone else, for that matter) are inherently biased by their cultural experiences, world views, and so on. This is not cause to give up in despair, however. Just because I have my world view based on my experiences and you have yours doesnt mean that we cant hope to translate from each others experiences or understand each other. That is, post-positivism rejects the relativist idea of the incommensurability of

My Three Key Stages of Life Essay

Everyone has their own key stages of life. They are the most important parts of your life. Mine, is of course when I was born, kindergarten and when I was in Primary 6. Why are they the most important for me? Well, it is all written here, in this essay. Like most of the babies in the world, I was born a healthy baby. Soon enough, I learnt how to crawl, walk, eat, run, and many other things. By the time I finished learning all those, I was already a toddler. It was one of the most important parts of my life. When I was born, I was the heaviest among my siblings and me. As I looked through all my baby photos, I realized I have changed a lot. Though I don’t recall much stuff, the only memories I had as a toddler were two nightmares. Time flies really fast. In the blink of an eye, I was in kindergarten. I studied in â€Å"Bukit Panjang Methodist Church Kindergarten†. I was excited on the first day of school. All those years, I really enjoyed going to school. It was when classes were much more fun with games and interaction between the teachers and students. I remembered during P.E. lessons the students will play in a playground, while a few were chosen to play with a big tub of water. And when the teacher starts to pick people to play with the water, the class usually will get chaotic. The best memory I had was when I celebrated my birthday in school. It was the best birthday present ever. A few years later, I entered primary school. It’s just an ordinary neighborhood primary school, â€Å"Bukit Timah Primary School†. Then it happened. Primary School Leaving Examination dates. Those dates were the dates where I had mixed emotions. They were the dates where I worked my entire primary school life for. It was the most crucial moments. My life depends on it. Whether I will get into a good or a bad school, all depends on those dates. Once you step into that examination hall, there’s no turning back. It wasn’t as bad as I thought. Though the papers were hard, I managed to complete them and the results I got were higher than I expected them to be. I remember during the day the results were out, many students cried when they saw their results. Some were tears of joy, some were tears of sorrow. Well, for me, I didn’t really cry. I only cried after I saw my best friend cried tears of happiness. I cried tears of joy too.

Barn Burning Essay - 2189 Words

Antonio Webb Professor Debra Germany English 2336 14 November 2012 Barn Burning In â€Å"Barn Burning†, a short story by William Faulkner, a boy finds that he can no longer be governed by his father’s ideas and tries to prevent his father from doing further harm, and leaves his family in the process. Sarty Snopes desire is to break away from the moral deficiency of his family life and live life with some resemblance of normalcy even at the expense of never seeing his family again. A growing body of evidence, suggest that humans have a moral sense from the very start of life and family does not instill this moral compass from the very start of life.†¦show more content†¦The Major rides by him on his horse and somewhere up ahead the boy hears a shot and then two more. The constellations wheeled on. It would be dawn and them sun-up after a while and he would be hungry, But that would be to-morrow and now he was only cold, and walking would cure that. His breathing was easier asleep because he knew it was almost dawn, the night al most over. He could tell that from the whippoorwills. They were everywhere now among the dark trees below them. He got up. He was a little stiff, but walking would cure that too as it would the cold, and soon there would be the sun. He went on down the hill, toward the dark woods within which the liquid silver voices of the birds called unceasing –the rapid and urgent beating of the urgent and quiring heart of the late spring night. He did not look back. (Baym,Nina) He knows that his father is torn between love and righteousness and feels sorrow for his father but knows in his heart he can longer live this way of life. While the story never mentions his age, Barn Burning is a sad story of a young mans life who knew what was right and wrong and does what has to be done in the end as conscious would not allow him to continue with his fathers way of life. However this story illustrates how morality is not developed within the family, but something that is instilled within us all in the first early years of life.Show MoreRelatedEssay Barn Burning1481 Words   |  6 PagesIn â€Å"Barn Burning,† the author, William Faulkner, composes a wonderful story about a poor boy who lives in anxiety, despair, and fear. He introduces us to Colonel Satoris Snopes, or Sarty, a boy who is mature beyond his years. Due to the harsh circumstances of life, Sarty must choose between justice and his family. At a tender age of ten, Sarty starts to believe his integrity will help him make the right choices. His loyalty to family doesn’t allow for him to understand why he warns the De SpainRead MoreBarn Burning Essay1889 Words   |  8 PagesIn William Faulkner’s â€Å"Barn Burning† Colonel Sartoris Snopes must decide either to stand with his father and compromise his integrity, or embrace honesty and morality and condemn his family. This is a difficult decision to make, especially for a ten year old boy that has nothing outside of what his father pr ovides. Sarty’s decision to ultimately betray his father is dependent on his observation of Abner’s character and the conflict he feels concerning Abner. â€Å"Barn Burning† opens with a trial inRead More Barn Burning Essay571 Words   |  3 PagesBarn Burning â€Å"Barn Burning† by William Faulkner was written in the ebb of the 1930’s in a decade of social, economic, and cultural decline. This story offers insight into the past years for students to learn of the nation and the South. This story shows the racial segregation that took place in these times between the white landowners and white tenant farmers, the blacks and the whites, and the poor white trash class and the blacks. The Snopes’s family was in the social class ofRead More Barn Burning Essay773 Words   |  4 PagesBarn Burning Barn Burning is a sad story because it very clearly shows the classical struggle between the privileged and the underprivileged classes. Time after time emotions of despair surface from both the protagonist and the antagonist involved in the story. This story outlines two distinct protagonists and two distinct antagonists. The first two are Colonel Sartoris Snopes (Sarty) and his father Abner Snopes (Ab). Sarty is the protagonist surrounded by his fatherRead More Barn Burning Essay1110 Words   |  5 Pages Barn Burning amp;quot;You’re getting to be a man. You got to learn. You got to learn to stick to your own blood or you ain’t going to have any blood to stick to you.amp;quot; This quote from William Faulkner’s amp;quot;Barn Burningamp;quot; does reveal a central issue in the story, as Jane Hiles suggests in her interpretation. The story is about blood ties, but more specifically, how these ties affect Sarty (the central character of the story). The story examines the internal conflict and dilemmaRead MoreEssay On Barn Burning879 Words   |  4 PagesWhy are children so loyal to their parents, even if their parents do not meet the moral standards of the child? Throughout the text of â€Å"Barn Burning†, Sarty seems to have repetitive feelings of grief and despair, yet he hesitates to out his father for his crimes. He hates his father’s crimes and his father’s way of life. Yet, Sarty is hesitant to out his father for his crimes. Mainly beca use he hopes his father will change, he fears his father will harm him physically or emotionally, and he placesRead MoreBarn Burning By William Faulkner935 Words   |  4 Pages William Faulkner’s â€Å"Barn Burning,† is about a southern white family that resides in a rural county in Mississippi. The low-income family members are the mother Lennie Snopes, the older brother, two sisters, and an aunt. The story’s main characters are, Colonel Sartoris Snopes, a 10- year-old boy, the father Abner Snopes, the property owner Abner’s boss Major de Spain, and his wife, Mrs. Lula de Spain. Abner Snopes characterized as the antagonist, and Faulkner describes him as an evil, vengeful manRead MoreBarn Burning By William Faulkner1373 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Faulkner’s short story â€Å"Barn Burning† is an epic exhibition of the author’s style. In the story, Faulkner shows us the story of Colonel Sartoris Snopes regarding his want for good and his loyalty to his family. Throughout the story, Sarty is put in a position of having to struggle between his integrity and his want to defend his father and family. In â€Å"B arn Burning,† a struggle is displayed by Sarty Snopes between his want to do right and his want to honor his father. The reader gets theRead MoreBarn Burning By William Faulkner1357 Words   |  6 PagesHenry Award winning short story, â€Å"Barn Burning† was written in 1938 and published by Harper’s in 1939 (â€Å"William,† par. 12). In many ways the story is a product of â€Å"both a turbulent time in America’s history and Faulkner’s personal history† (Parker 101). America was emerging from the Great Depression just in time to see World War II looming on the horizon while Faulkner was struggling with â€Å"finances, a drinking problem, and a new mistress† (Parker 102). In â€Å"Barn Burning† Faulkner makes extensive useRead MoreBarn Burning by William Faulkner682 Words   |  3 PagesWilliam Faulkner’s Barn Burning, Abner Snopes is a main character and father of Colonel Sartoris Snopes (Sarty), who is also a main character. Abner is a very poor looking man, unclean and unshaven. He always seems to wear the same thing, a dirty wh ite button up shirt with a dirty black hat and coat. Snopes is a very terrifying figure, often controlling his family with physical and psychological violence as well as making them contribute to his favorite pastime, burning barns. The Snopes family

Carl Gustav and Sigmund Freud on Human Nature and...

Human Nature: Though Carl Gustav Jung was a colleague, friend, and the presumed successor of Sigmund Freud, their views on human nature drifted further and further apart as Jung grew intellectually. While they were both psychoanalysts, in the end their views on human nature were practically antithetical. Freud viewed human nature deterministically, and postulated that human motivation was grounded in unconscious biological urges for sexual satiation. Freud strongly emphasized the development that occurred during childhood and attempted to explain this development using his five stage theory–oral, anal, genital, latent, phallic—of psychosexual development. For the sake of brevity the stages will not discussed individually however, it is important to note that each stage was characterized by an erogenous zone, which correlated with Freud’s idea of sexual energy as a guiding force in development. Jung, on the other hand, became theoretically rooted in spirituality and mysticism, and as a result of splitting from Freud, he developed the school of psychology known as analytical psychology. In stark contrast to Freud, Jung emphasized the second half of ones life and developed a more existential approach due to his emphasis on the importance of the meaning that once ascribes to their life. In order to develop appropriate at this juncture, Jung determined that during this later stage of life one must first let go of behaviors that molded the first half of one’s life, and then

The Viking Society and Culture - 2981 Words

â€Å"We and our fathers have now lived in this fair land for nearly three hundred and fifty years and never before has such a terror been seen in Britain as we have now suffered at the hands of a pagan people. Such a voyage was not thought possible. The church of St. Cuthbert is spattered with the blood of the priests of God.† These are the words of Alcuin of York, an Anglo-Saxon scholar, describing the first recorded presence of Norsemen warriors and their attack on Lindisfarne, a holy monastic undefended island of the coast of England in 793 A.D. This attack by pagans from Scandinavia introduced a new kind of warrior to the known world and established a new chapter in history known as the Viking Age. From this moment and for the next†¦show more content†¦From the moment a Norsemen is born, one’s own death was already chosen by fate. Nothing could be done to alter this moment. But it was understood that a man had complete control over his decisions while aliv e, and his actions were only of his own doing. Therefore, one ought to make the best of every moment, fully charging at life’s challenges. Either the worst that could happen was death which was out of one’s control or the most desired outcome could take place which was increased honorable reputation and fame. An example of this is presented in Sverris Saga about King Sverrir of Norway and his words to his army. The king told a story about a farmer who accompanied his son to the warships and gave him counsel, telling him to be, â€Å"valiant and hardy in perils,† saying, â€Å"How would you act if you were engaged in battle and knew beforehand that you were destined to be killed?† the son answered, â€Å"Why then should I refrain from striking right and left?† The farmer said, â€Å"Now suppose someone could tell you for certain that you would not be killed?† The son answered, â€Å"Why then should I refrain from pushing forward to the utmo st?† The farmer said, â€Å"In every battle you fight, one of two things will happen: you will either fall or come away alive. Be bold, therefore, for everything is preordained. Nothing can bring a man to his death if his time has not come and nothing can save one doomed to die. 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Fadlan presents this account by explaining the desc riptive process of the funeral of a Viking from an outside perspective. This paper will be a brief summary and opinion on the funeral of a Viking. Vikings comeRead MoreViking Art : A Critique1615 Words   |  7 PagesViking Art : A Critique James Graham-Campbell’s Viking Art is an illustrated study of Viking art from the Scandinavian world from AD 800 to around AD 1100. Graham-Campbell chose not to focus on one particular style or one specific location, but instead paints a vivid picture of Viking art all over the Scandinavian world and how it changed and was adapted in various time periods of the Viking Age. The study explores the art styles of Oseberg c. 775- c. 875, Borre c.850- c. 950, Jellinge c. 900Read MoreCulture And Culture Of Ireland1451 Words   |  6 Pagesinto the culture of Ireland by taking a look at the five characteristics of culture. The first section will cover the history of Ireland to illustrate the connection of a country’s struggle and their learned culture. I will attempt to communicate some of the key aspects that connect an individual culture to the region of the world it inhabits in the second section. In the third section, I will discuss the language and art of the land will be discussed to draw lines to the symbols a culture is founded

Legalizing Infant Euthanasia Free Essays

Since the evolution of man, infants have been born with severe illnesses. These infants may be able to survive due to advancing technologies, but are left with possible and probable defects. Many infants will die even though they are being treated because they are not equipped to sustain life. We will write a custom essay sample on Legalizing Infant Euthanasia or any similar topic only for you Order Now These circumstances have led to the debatable issue of infant euthanasia, or mercy killing, to allow these babies an end to their suffering, and die peacefully. While many people feel that euthanasia is murder, infant euthanasia should be legalized to spare terminally ill newborns of long, painful deaths, and to spare them of possible life-long disabilities. Euthanasia is said to be morally wrong by pro-life groups. They point out that infant’s may not be suffering while they are dying. They also emphasize that advances in pain management make it possible to relieve all or almost all pain. These people say that children should be saved at all costs, no matter how great the disability may be. They accentuate that the infants may be saved due to advancing technology, and that there are also therapy treatments for their possible disabilities. However, in considering whether or not to treat a newborn, the main goal should be to spare infants of long, painful deaths. Most experts believe that the primary answer to this issue is to follow what’s in the child’s best interests. If his mental and physical handicaps are overwhelming and it would be inhumane to prolong his life, then treatment should be withheld or withdrawn. After all, saving an infant for a life of suffering is hardly a humane and loving act. An infant was born with a skin condition similar to third-degree burns over almost all of its body for which there was no cure. The baby’s mother was young, unwed, and indigent. Providing basic nursing care caused tearing away of the skin. The infant could not be fed orally because of blistering in the mouth and throat. Any movement of the infant seemed to cause it pain. Even with intensive care its life expectancy, at most, was believed to be days. It would have been reasonable, merciful, and justifiable to have shortened the baby’s dying by an intended direct action chosen by the parent and the neonatologists. In cases relevantly like this, it is not immoral or morally wrong to intend and effect a merciful end to a life that, all things considered, will be meaningless to the one who lives it and an unwarranted burden for others to support. Among the women who work in the Stanford intensive care nursery, several said that if they were to have an extremely premature baby, they would not want it to be treated aggressively. One woman said that if she knew what was about to happen she would stay away from a hospital with a sophisticated intensive care unit. Others say they would make sure they were under the care of a doctor who would not press the extremes on survival. Many parents would make a similar choice but are not given the opportunity. It has been called a violation of God’s commandment not to kill. â€Å"†¦ in effect, the demand that physicians fight death at all costs is a demand that they play God. It is a demand that they conquer nature, thereby declaring themselves more powerful than God’s order. † Perhaps the ideal of conquest will be replaced by the ideal of living in agreement with nature. The most benign technology works in harmony with natural causes rather than intruding on them. The â€Å"Baby Doe† rule is a list of guidelines stating that a baby should be treated aggressively with very few exceptions. These exceptions to the rule are when â€Å"the infant is chronically and irreversibly comatose†, when the treatment would merely prolong dying, not be effective in ameliorating or correcting all of the infant’s life-threatening conditions, or otherwise be futile in terms of the survival of the infant†, and when â€Å"treatment would be virtually futile in terms of the survival of the infant and the treatment itself under such circumstances would be inhumane†¦ This policy rather loudly states that parents and professionals may not consider the salvageable infant’s life prospects no matter how harmful they may appear. A graphic illustration of the potential harm in the treatment of a handicapped infant is provided by Robert and Peggy Stinson’s account of their son Andrew who was born at a gestational age of 24 1/2 weeks and a weight of 800 grams. He was placed on a respirator against his parents’ wishes and without their consent, and remained dependent on the respirator for five months, until he was finally permitted to die. The seemingly endless list of Andrew’s afflictions, almost all of which were iatrogenic, reveals how disastrous this hospitalization was. Baby Andrew was, in effect saved by the respirator to die five ling, painful, and expensive months later of the respirator’s side effects. â€Å"†¦ the physicians who treated him violated an ancient and honored Hippocratic principle of professional ethics,`Primum non nocere’, First do no harm. As shown in the examples above, infants that are treated aggressively will die more slowly and painfully than if they were allowed a quick and peaceful death. By using aggressive treatment on severely ill infants, many are â€Å"saved† to live with life-long disabilities. To demand that physicians use intensive care technology beyond the point when it is likely to assist with a patient’s problems, as the Baby Doe regulations require, is to demand that they violate their professional commitment to do no harm. To argue that infants must be treated aggressively, no matter how great their disabilities, is to insist that the nursery become a torture chamber and that infants unequipped to live be deprived of their natural right to die. Helen Harrison, author of â€Å"The Premature Baby Book: a Parent’s Guide to Coping and Caring in the First Years†, wrote about how families are at the mercy of an accelerating life-support technology and of their physicians’ personal philosophies and motives concerning its use. She wrote after interviewing numerous parents and physicians in heartbreaking situations of delivery-room and nursery crises, â€Å"I sympathize with physicians’ concerns when parents request that there be no heroic measures. However, I sympathize infinitely more with families forced to live with the consequences of decisions made by others. Above all, I sympathize with infants saved for a lifetime of suffering. † The decisions involving the care of hopelessly ill and disabled newborns should be left to the traditional processes, to parents and physicians who do the best they can under difficult circumstances. B. D. Cohen, author of â€Å"Hard Choices† wrote, â€Å"Until such time as society is willing to pay the bill for truly humane institutions of twenty-four-hour home care for all such infants, to offer than death or living death, shouldn’t these decisions be left to those who will have to live with them? † There is a disease called Spina Bifida which affects between six thousand and eleven thousand newborns in the United States each year. The children are alive but require urgent surgery to prevent their handicap to intensify and bring about death. Paralysis, bladder and bowel incontinence, hydrocephalus or water on the brain are all part of the child’s future. Severe mental retardation, requiring total custodial care, is the likely fate of 10% of the 15% of the children. Some 10% of the children will die prior to reaching the first grade, in spite of aggressive medical care. These infants, incapable of making their own decisions, deserve to be spared the pain and suffering of such severe diseases and illnesses. Although some claim that euthanasia is the killing of a human, infant euthanasia should be legalized to spare severely ill babies of drawn-out, excruciating deaths, and to spare them of the possible defects from their illnesses. Infants continue to be born with such disabling illnesses daily. Many parents are left burdened throughout their lifetimes. They may not be prepared to provide the round-the-clock treatment that is needed. New York State should bring about peace by legalizing euthanasia, and end the suffering for all people intimately involved in situations described previously. How to cite Legalizing Infant Euthanasia, Essay examples

Surgical Options For A Patient Presenting With A Mid-Shaft Fractured

Question: Discuss about the Identify Surgical Options For A Patient Presenting With A Mid-Shaft Fractured Femur. Answer: Surgical treatment options The surgery for mid-shaft fractured femur depends on time. Mid-shaft femur fractures are treated depending upon pattern of fracture. Femoral neck fractures, percutaneous pinning or sliding of hip screw and anthroplasty is done for the elderly patients like in the given case study of Mr.Brown. If the skin around the fracture is still not broken, then it is advisable to wait to make it stable before surgery. If the fracture is open, it might be exposed to environment and so need to be cleaned urgently to prevent infection before immediate surgery. The leg is placed in skeletal fraction or long-leg splint between the period of initial emergency care and surgery. This helps to keep the broken bones aligned and maintain length of leg. There are three surgical treatment options available for the mid-shaft fractured femur. External fixation is a type of operation where screws or metal pins are placed in bones above and below the site of fracture. The screws and pins are attached to bar outside skin that act as stabilizing frame for the holding bones in proper position for fast healing. It is a temporary treatment where external fixators are applied which provide temporary and good stability until the femur is healed (Kulshrestha, Roy, Audige, 2011). Intramedullary nailing is another surgical option where and currently in use for the mid-shaft femoral fractures opted commonly by most surgeons. In this procedure, a specially designed metal rod is inserted in femur marrow canal. The rod then passes across fracture that helps to it in position. The intramedullary nail is inserted in the canal at the knee or hip in small incision. There is crewing at the bones at both ends. This keeps the bone and nail in proper position at the time of healing (Gelalis, et al., 2012). Screws and plates are also done as a surgical operation when the bone segments are reduced or first repositioned in their normal alignment. Metal plates and special screws are attached to the bone outer surface. These screws and plates are often used during intramedulalry nailing which is not possible for the fractures that are extended to knee or hip joints (Smith, Parvizi, Purtill, 2011). Complications Patients who sustain mid-line femur fracture after a traumatic accident like tractor accident of Mr. Brown, encounter complications depending upon the severity of break or fracture location. The complications include infection, bone healing problems, nerve damage, compartment syndrome or surgical complications (Kong Sabharwal, 2014). In fractured femur, there can be bone breaking the skin and that increases the risk for infection. If there is wrong alignment of bones or infection that causes irritation, the healing process is delayed and there is requirement of further surgery. Nerve damage can also occur where there might be weakness or numbness that is a rare complication. Compartment syndrome is also a rare complication of femoral mid-shaft fractures where there is compression of blood vessels, nerves, muscles inside compartment or closed space within the body. This generally occurs within the thigh with bleeding or inflammation because of trauma that is associated with the fract ure. In case of this syndrome, immediate operation is required. Surgical complications can also occur due to hardware failure that is required to stabilize bone or hardware piece that causes pain or irritation. Nerve damage is the possible surgical complication in mid-shaft femoral fracture (Park, Noh, Kam, 2013). Major complications, nursing interventions and monitoring Depending on the femoral fracture, the major complications in mid shaft femoral fracture affects the knee, however, in a different way. Femur movement when it breaks, there is ligament damage in knee that demand immediate operation for repairing the damage. Heterotopic ossification, pudendal nerve injury and Acute compartment syndrome are major complications that might occur post-operation of fractured femur (Kaiser, et al., 2011). Heterotopic ossification occurs with an incidence of 25% as a post-operative complication after femur fracture surgery. In this, there is varying severity where bone debris from endosteal canal reaming is deposited in soft tissues that surround the site of nail insertion in Intramedullary nailing surgery (Botolin, Mauffrey, Hammerberg, Hak, Stahel, 2013). These debris are stimulate the heterotopic bone formation that decreases debris amount left in tissues after the nailing leading to heterotopic ossification. This complication occurs at the proximal end of reamed intramedullary femoral nail posing a complication after the procedure. Thenursing intervention is the physical therapy where the nurse keeps the patient with involved joint at rest to maintain a functional position and perform Passive Range of Motion (PROM) where the body parts are moved within the available range without muscle activation (Martinez de Albornoz, Khanna, Longo, Forriol, Maffulli, 2011). It is monitored by keeping into account the movement range of the patient and pain management. Pudendal nerve injury is another main complication that is associated with the fracture surgery where there is static interlocking in the femur nailing. This neurologic injury is a combination of direct compression and localized ischaemia of perineum against post fracture countertraction. In this, there is branching of sensory terminals of pudendal nerve that appear susceptible to injury causing complications after the surgery. It is an important and common complication after intramedullary femur nailing that might result in complete sensory loss. Thenursing intervention involves pain management and medical interventions. Nurses would reduce the pudendal nerve irritability through lifestyle changes. They would perform sitting modification, avoidance of physical activities that irritate nerves, bladder and bowel management help to prevent straining of nerves and its compression that might cause nerve irritation. Continuous monitoring and refereeing to a physiotherapist would help to r elax the muscles and decrease nerve irritation. Acupunture and psychotherapy can also be helpful for reducing pain and irritation of nerve (Fisher Lotze, 2011). Acute compartment syndrome is a rare but important complication that takes place post femur fracture. It is a highly painful condition when the muscle pressure builds to alarming levels. This can decrease flow of blood preventing oxygen and nourishment from reaching muscle and nerve cells. The pressure need to be released or else can cause permanent disability. This requires surgery when the surgeon makes incisions in the muscle coverings and skin to relieve pressure (Kalyani, Fisher, Roberts, Giannoudis, 2011). Thenursing intervention involves pain management by medications like epidural analgesia to relieve pain. Multimodal approach that includes use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)and paracetamol along with an opioid considered best after pressure release through surgery. Patient education is also required before discharge after pressure release surgery by nurses for predisposition to this syndrome. The monitoring involves evaluation of any medication side effects and compartment pressure that should be less than 15mmHg via single pressure readings or continuous pressure monitoring. Nursing interventions and Rationale Heterotopic ossification(HO) In HO, there might be complications related to skin and musculoskeletal system where there might be problems regarding osteomyelitis and skin pressures. Skin complications can occur due to immobility, changes in flow of blood, improper positioning, venous stasis vasomotor tone loss and hypoxia. Contractures, muscle atrophy, osteoporosis, HO and spasticity can also occur due to immobility, joint stiffness, muscle atrophy, weakness and much more. Nursing intervention Rationale Treatment for spasticity Physical, medicine and drug therapy It is done to promote mobility, manage leg weakness, allowing the patient to stand and provide strength. It would also provide manual dexterity by improving muscle therapy and functioning. Passive Range of Motion (PROM) As movement is restricted in the patient, it provides exercise options for the, in enhancing mobility. It is done to provide a range of motion exercises that aid in movement and reduction of stiffness. It improves circulation and muscle strength along with maintenance of flexibility and pain management. Controlling of parameters Temperature, fatigue, anxiety, decubitus ulcers also checked as the patient has minimum mobility and can be prone to spasticity. Repositioning of the patient It is important at every 2 hours to avoid irritation or rubbing of skin and to avoid remaining of the patient at one position for a long time. Patient education It is also important for patient and families by instructing them ROM exercises to watch for potential complication signs in OH and prevent pressure sores (Mavrogenis, Soucacos, Papagelopoulos, 2011). Monitoring Rationale Serum C-reactive protein levels and pain level It is important to monitor this protein level to check for inflammation reaction that can potentially occur in OH. Serial bone scans It is done to monitor the metabolic activity of OH and fix time for surgical resection in cases of postoperative complication and resurgence. Pudendal nerve injury This nerve is stretched, damaged or can cause permanent neuropathy in the patient. There can be irreversible nerve damage that can cause impaired mobility and stretch injury and permanent damage. Nursing intervention Rationale Physical therapy Kegal exercise should be avoided as it affects pelvic floor that is already tight and this exercise makes it tighter. Until the symptoms of pudendal nerve injury is not treated, it is important to avoid it. This is required to avoid further nerve damage and irritation. This is also important to check as it can lead to permanent nerve damage (Montoya, Calver, Carrick, Prats, Corton, Anatomic relationships of the pudendal nerve branches. , 2011). Lifestyle modifications There should be avoidance of bending, sitting, avoiding of exercises and only follow approved exercises along with bicycling that help to prevent permanent nerve damage. This is important to prevent recurrence of nerve damage that can cause irreversible damage leading to impaired mobility (Montoya, Calver, Carrick, Prats, Corton, 2011). Bladder and bowel movement management It can cause stretch injury as straining during constipation causes damage of pudendal nerve. Patient should drink prune juice, organic whole grain high fibre, black-eyed peas and psyllium husk to avid constipation. This is a potential thing to avoid in pudendal nerve injury as it causes straining during constipation. This can further increase damage of nerve and cause irritation that might result in permanent nerve damage. Pain management It is important to take care as manipulation in connective tissue and nerve can constrict nerve impairment. This includes conservative management of pain through medications and rating of pain on the scale from 1 to 10. Medication management It is also important as it is considered a gold standard and first line of treatment that manages its symptoms. Superior Hypogastric Block is used to treat pain in the pelvic region where a thin needle is inserted through fluoroscopy in skin and then advanced to L5 location of vertebra of superior hypogastric plexus to decrease the pain by 70% (Masata, Hubka, Martan, 2012). Monitoring Rationale Pain monitoring It is important for the nurses to monitor pain through Nerve Integrity Monitoring System (NIMS, Medtronics) that helps to prevent pain impulses and risk for central sensitization and release pain syndrome. It also prevents fibroblasts prevention and risk for scar formation. Acute compartment syndrome Acute compartment syndrome is surgical emergency that can cause permanent nerve damage and causes severe injury. This cam cause permanent damage of muscles and can prevent oxygen and nourishment to reach muscles and nerve causing permanent loss of nerve sensation. Nursingintervention Rationale Multimodal approach Opoids and NSAIDS along with paracetamol are used to manage pain in the patients. Paracetamol, NSAID and IV morphine is given at 0.1-0.2mg/Kg titrated is given to the patient. This helps to reduce pain in the patient for traumatic pain that decreases with surgery time. Pain is managed through controlled steps that help to adjust the dose of morphine use as opioids for the pain management (Waterman, Laughlin, Kilcoyne, Cameron, Owens, 2013). Patient education In this, one need to know about the various symptoms of this syndrome so that they can immediately report in case of severe complications that might require surgery and failing can cause permanent nerve damage. It is important to understand the reoccurrence and study of complications that need to be looked for after the surgery for acute compartment syndrome. It is also important to improve their health behaviour by keeping a check on their improvement and prevent reoccurrence of this complication. Monitoring Rationale Side effects of medication This multimodal approach causes many potential side effects that can affect the patient and adverse the complicated situation. Side effects are renal toxicity, gastric ulceration, platelet aggregation inhibition that can cause hemorrhagic complications. This can aggravate the complication of acute compartment syndrome. Nurses have to monitor the potential side effects of multimodal approach to avoid high risk for further trauma injuries, increased risk for potential side effects of medication therapy that might affect the patient and deteriorate the condition. Pressure monitoring It is an invasive procedure that has an huge impact on the patient having acute compartment syndrome following fracture surgery. The pressure should be below 15 mmHg to avoid complications. It is done through single pressure readings, fibreoptic transducer (camino-catheter) which is simple and reliable. Nurses have to keep monitoring the compartment pressure as it can cause complications like inflammation, swelling, and blood supply loss in muscles, muscle scarring, loss of function and contracture. Therefore, it is important to monitor the pressure levels. Bibliography Aubut, J. A., Mehta, S., Cullen, N., Teasell, R. W., Team, G. t. (2011). A comparison of heterotopic ossification treatment within the traumatic brain and spinal cord injured population: an evidence based systematic review. NeuroRehabilitation, 151-160. Botolin, S., Mauffrey, C., Hammerberg, E. M., Hak, D. J., Stahel, P. F. (2013). Heterotopic ossification in the reaming tract of a percutaneous antegrade femoral nail: a case report. Journal of medical case reports, 90. Fisher, H. W., Lotze, P. M. (2011). Nerve injury locations during retropubic sling procedures. . International urogynecology journal, 439-441. Gelalis, I. D., Politis, A. N., Arnaoutoglou, C. M., Korompilias, A. V., E., P. E., Vekris, M. D., ... Xenakis, T. A. (2012). Diagnostic and treatment modalities in nonunions of the femoral shaft. A review. Injury, 980-988. Kaiser, M. M., Wessel, L. M., Zachert, G., Stratmann, C., Eggert, R., Gros, N., ... Rapp, M. (2011). Biomechanical analysis of a synthetic femur spiral fracture model: influence of different materials on the stiffness in flexible intramedullary nailing. . Clinical Biomechanics, 592-597. Kalyani, B. S., Fisher, B. E., Roberts, C. S., Giannoudis, P. V. (2011). Compartment syndrome of the forearm: a systematic review. The Journal of hand surgery, 535-543. Kong, H., Sabharwal, S. (2014). External fixation for closed pediatric femoral shaft fractures: where are we now?. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 3814-3822. Kulshrestha, V., Roy, T., Audige, L. (2011). Operative versus nonoperative management of displaced midshaft clavicle fractures: a prospective cohort study. Journal of orthopaedic trauma, 31-38. Martinez de Albornoz, P., Khanna, A., Longo, U. G., Forriol, F., Maffulli, N. (2011). The evidence of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound for in vitro, animal and human fracture healing. . British medical bulletin. Masata, J., Hubka, P., Martan, A. (2012). Pudendal neuralgia following transobturator inside-out tape procedure (TVT-O)case report and anatomical study. International urogynecology journal, 505-507. Mavrogenis, A. F., Soucacos, P. N., Papagelopoulos, P. J. (2011). Heterotopic ossification revisited. . Orthopedics, 177-177. Montoya, T. I., Calver, L., Carrick, K. S., Prats, J., Corton, M. M. (2011). Anatomic relationships of the pudendal nerve branches. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology, 504-e1. Park, S. S., Noh, H., Kam, M. (2013). Risk factors for overgrowth after flexible intramedullary nailing for fractures of the femoral shaft in children. Bone Joint, 254-258. Smith, E. B., Parvizi, J., Purtill, J. J. (2011). Delayed surgery for patients with femur and hip fracturesrisk of deep venous thrombosis. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery , E113-E116 . Waterman, C. B., Laughlin, C. M., Kilcoyne, C. K., Cameron, K. L., Owens, L. B. (2013). Surgical treatment of chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the leg: failure rates and postoperative disability in an active patient population. JBJS, 592-596.